Vision Screener Update: w

ABCD-Vision.org | Vision Screening | Instrument-based Objective Screening

 

Date: June 2023

 

Summary: Portable instrument-based technology for early detection of amblyopia and amblyopia risk factors (ARF)

 

TABLE:

 

Now	Device	Version	Price	Source	Interpret	Validation	Sens	Spec	PPV	Comments
	PlusoptiX			Nuremburg Germany
+		S16			In (99177)					(+) infrared multi-axial, precise, sturdy handle, Excellent referral criteria selection (-) slower on high errors
+		S12, A12			In (99177)	1-12				(+)infrared multi-axial, precise, AA batteries, sturdy handles, Excellent referral criteria selection, 202113(-) slower on high errors
-		S09, A09				4,14-20	74-98	41-96
-		S08 desk				19,21,22
-		S04 desk				23,24				(+) fast and child-friendly, rapid, convenient user output, Christian Schmidt (-) requires windows computer and firewire cables
	iScreen			iScreen, Memphis, TN	Cent (99174)	AAPOS4,25-29
-		Table-top				30, AAPOS31				(+)excellent centered red reflex and reading center, Jack Bellows  (-) single image- current model too large
+		Hand-held				4,19,26				(+) fastest and best for delayed kids (-_ single axis
	2WIN			Adaptica (Padova, Italy)	In (99177)	7,8,13,32-35				(+) infrared multiaxial, accurate refraction, Mario Angi (-) old touch buttons and small screen
+		Hand-held				1,2
+		CR function				AAPOS36,37				(+) infrared occluder for strabismus
+		Kaleidos case				7,8,38				(+) luminance and distraction control, extra battery, tablet control WiFi or Bluetooth (-) too close for infants, big
	GoCheck Kids			Gobiquity,	In (99177) or cent (99174)					(+) convenient familiar platform, portable, affordable per use pricing, central data control (-) wide-angle LED flash
-		Nokia 1020				39,40			50-78	(+) true flash (-) tape over flash
+		iPhone 7+				41				(+) familiar screen app (-) slow LED flash
+		Flash concentrate				29,38,42				(+) faster LED, two axis, fix on yellow square (-)
?		Glow fix				43				(+) relax accommodation (-) too interesting stays on
?		iPhone(s)				44,45				(+) could be public, (-) loss of doc control, less flash control
+	SPOT			Baxter Welch Allyn Pediavision	In (99177)	2,4,6,9,13,29,46-52				(+) infrared multiaxial, fast, big vendor (-) less precise axis, minimal upgrades, Lacks IRC adjust 202113
	Kanna	Android Phone, AI				53	83	94	88
	AI Optic				In (99177)	10				(+)Resembles Plusoptix in shape, cheaper, USB charge (-) Less valid than PlusoptiX
?	Cell V100			MediWorks Shanghai, China						(+) infrared photorefractor
?	SW-800			China		AAPOS54				(+) infrared
+	Blinq		$9K	Rebion (prior PVS, Rebiscan)	In (CPT), EMR	Ambly-Stab55-59, AAPOS7,8,34,37,60,61				(+) birefringent binocular foveation, Hunter and Guyton, fixation instability (? Strabismic amblyopia), (-) heavy, hard to hold, frequent inconsistent interpretation
+	Retinomax	K+ III	$14K	Righton	Only Rx, 92015	1,15,62-65 VIPS66, AAPOS1,9,36,67				(+) Hartman-Shack autorefractor, excellent refract ± cycloplegia, keratometry, printer (-) monocular, too close for infants, cost
	Autorefractors	Grand Seiko, Topcon				68
-	Sure Sight			Welch Allyn		VIPS66,69, AAPOS70				(+) monocular remote 30cm autorefract, kid adds +2, VIPS calibrated (-) low PPV
-	MTI				Required reader	Iowa71, 24,31,72-90 VIPS66,69				(+) Simple, sturdy, focus-in-dark, high predictive value possible, Howard Freedman (-) Polaroid film, needs interpret
-	EyeDx				Paired computer	AAPOS31,91				(+) original, Kodak digital camera with extra flash, David Granet (-) slow serial cables, too sensitive
-	Vision Research				reader	92				(+) extensive Kindergarten experience, Keith Morgan (-) 35 mm film camera in frame
-	Video Refraction					90ALSPAC VIPS66,93				(+) precursor to PlusoptiX
	Palm-AR					VIPS94
-	ADBC			ABCD		AAPOS95-98
-		Gateway DV-S20			DCC	AAPOS25				(+) consumer $99 2megapixel non-zoom camera (-) low resolution
-		Canon TX1		ABCD	DCC	AAPOS25,99				(+) 10x zoom 7 megapixel camera, close flash-lens
-		iPhone 4		ABCD	DCC	AAPOS25				(+) precursor to iCheck Kids GCK (-) not override pre-flash
+	CRADLE	iPhone 7		IOS		100-102				(+) Screens facial photographs for leukocoria
	MDEyeCare	iPhone 7		IOS		100				(+) more sensitive in real cases than CRADLE

 

Legend: “Now” indicates currently available or not, Devices have sometimes been produced with different versions.  Internal software interpretation versions also differ and are not all included here.  Interpretation by instrument referral guidelines either internal computer in screener on site (In) or sent to central expert reader for manual interpretation.  Comments include advantages (+) and disadvantages (-).

 

Video Examples on VIMEO: https://vimeo.com/channels/visionscreen        

Community Impact of Photoscreening Programs^{72,80,85,103-111}

General topics and reviews of photoscreening^112-122

[Uniform] Validation Guidelines^{66,71,123-126} 2021¹²⁷

History and Development of Objective Vision Screening^89,128-136

 

References:

1.         Racano E, Alessi S, Pertile R. Comparison of 2Win and plusoptiX A12R refractometers with Retinomax handheld autorefractor keratometer. J AAPOS. Oct 2019;23(5):276 e1-276 e5. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2019.05.017

2.         Kirk S, Armitage MD, Dunn S, Arnold RW. Calibration and Validation of the 2WIN Photoscreener Compared to the PlusoptiX S12 and the SPOT. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. Jul 8 2014;51(5):1-4. doi:10.3928/01913913-20140701-01

3.         Chang DA, Ede RC, Chow DC, et al. Early Childhood Vision Screening in Hawai'i Utilizing a Hand-Held Screener. Hawaii J Med Public Health. Sep 2015;74(9):292-6.

4.         Arnold RW, Arnold AW, Armitage MD, Shen JM, Hepler TE, Woodard TL. Pediatric photoscreeners in high risk patients 2012: A comparison study of Plusoptix, iScreen and SPOT. Binoc Vis and Strabismus Quart. 2013;28(1):20-28.

5.         Li R, Huang D, Zhu H, et al. [The performance of visual photoscreening for Chinese preschool children aged 4 to 5 years]. Zhonghua Yan Ke Za Zhi. Mar 11 2020;56(3):189-196. doi:10.3760/cma.j.issn.0412-4081.2020.03.006

6.         Zhang X, Wang J, Li Y, Jiang B. Diagnostic test accuracy of Spot and Plusoptix photoscreeners in detecting amblyogenic risk factors in children: a systemic review and meta-analysis. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. Jul 2019;39(4):260-271. doi:10.1111/opo.12628

7.         Keffalos MA, Martin SJ, Arnold RW. Drive-By Photoscreening: plusoptiX, 2WIN and blinq Amblyopia Detection during the COVID-19 pandemic. Clin Ophthalmol. 2021;15:775-782. doi:10.2147/OPTH.S300871

8.         Arnold RW, Keffalos MA, Martin SJ. Drive-by Photoscreening [Response to Letter]. Clin Ophthalmol. 2021;15:1463-1464.

9.         Yalinbas D, Bozali E, Kara C, Sari SA, Dursun D. Yeni tanı konmuş dikkat eksikliği hiperaktivite bozukluğu olan çocuklarda fotoscreener ve el tipi otorefraktometrenin sikloplejik otorefraktometri ile karşılaştırılması. Pamukkale Medical Journal. 2022;doi:10.31362/patd.1140073

10.       Arnold RW. Comparative Validation of PlusoptiX and AI-Optic Photoscreeners in Children with High Amblyopia Risk Factor Prevalence. Clin Ophthalmol. August 4, 2022 2022;16:2639-2650. doi:10.2147/OPTH.S378777

11.       Al-Haddad C, El Moussawi Z, Hoyeck S, et al. Amblyopia risk factors among pediatric patients in a hospital-based setting using photoscreening. PLoS One. 2021;16(7):e0254831. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0254831

12.       Vaughan J, Dale T, Herrera D. Comparison of Photoscreening to Chart Methodology for Vision Screening. J Sch Nurs. Jul 14 2020;38(3):306-310. doi:10.1177/1059840520940370

13.       Arnold RW, Silbert DI, Modjesky H. Instrument referral criteria for Plusoptix, SPOT and 2WIN targeting 2021 AAPOS guidelines. Clin Ophthalmol. 2022;16:489—505. doi:https://doi.org/10.2147/OPTH.S342666

14.       Arnold RW, Tulip D, McArthur E, et al. Predictive value from pediatrician Plusoptix screening: Impact of refraction and binocular alignment. Binoc Vis and Strabismus Quart. 2012;27(4):227-232.

15.       Payerols A, Eliaou C, Trezeguet V, Villain M, Daien V. Accuracy of PlusOptix A09 distance refraction in pediatric myopia and hyperopia. BMC Ophthalmol. Jun 01 2016;16:72. doi:10.1186/s12886-016-0247-8

16.       Singman E, Matta N, Tian J, Silbert D. A comparison of referral criteria used by the plusoptiX photoscreener. Comparative Study. Strabismus. Sep 2013;21(3):190-4. doi:10.3109/09273972.2013.811606

17.       Singman E, Matta N, Fairward A, Silbert D. Evaluation of plusoptiX photoscreening during examinations of children with autism. Comparative Study

Evaluation Studies. Strabismus. Jun 2013;21(2):103-5. doi:10.3109/09273972.2013.786736

18.       Silbert DI, Matta NS, Andersen K. Plusoptix photoscreening may replace cycloplegic examination in select pediatric ophthalmology patients. J AAPOS. Apr 2013;17(2):163-5. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2012.11.008

19.       Wang J, Suh D. Comparison between the plusoptix and iScreen photoscreeners in detecting amblyopic risk factors in children (meeting abstract). J AAPOS. 2012;16(1):105.

20.       Thomas J, Rajashekar B, Kamath A, Gogate P. Comparison between Plusoptix A09 and gold standard cycloplegic refraction in preschool children and agreement to detect refractive amblyogenic risk factors. Oman J Ophthalmol. Jan-Apr 2021;14(1):14-19. doi:10.4103/ojo.OJO_284_2019

21.       Saber Moghadam A, Alizadeh R, Zarei-Ghanavati M. Plusoptix S08 sensitivity in detecting strabismus as amblyogenic risk factor. Strabismus. Dec 2013;21(4):230-4. doi:10.3109/09273972.2013.851259

22.       Bloomberg J, Suh D. Performance of the plusoptix A08 photoscreener for the detection of amblyopia risk factors in children 0-5 in central Iowa (Meeting abstract). J AAPOS. 2012;16(1):105.

23.       Matta NS, Arnold RW, Singman EL, Silbert DI. Can a photoscreener help us remotely evaluate and manage amblyopia? Am Orthopt J. 2011;61:124-7. doi:61/1/124 [pii]

10.3368/aoj.61.1.124

24.       Matta NS, Arnold RW, Singman EL, Silbert DI. Comparison between the plusoptiX and MTI Photoscreeners. Arch Ophthalmol. Dec 2009;127(12):1591-5. doi:127/12/1591 [pii]

10.1001/archophthalmol.2009.294

25.       Arnold RW, Davis B, Arnold LE, Rowe KS, Davis JM. Calibration and validation of nine objective vision screeners with contact lens-induced anisometropia. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. May-Jun 2013;50(3):184-90. doi:10.3928/01913913-20130402-02

26.       Silbert DI, Matta NS, Arnold RW. Comparing The Iscreen To The Mti Photoscreener In Pediatric Vision Screening. IOVS. Tuesday, May 08, 2012, 3:45 PM - 5:30 PM 2012;

27.       Kerr NC, Somes G, Enzenauer RW. The effect of developmentally-at-risk status on the reliability of the iScreen(R) photorefractive device in young children. Am Orthopt J. 2011;61:117-23. doi:10.3368/aoj.61.1.117

28.       Misra N, Khanna RC, Mettla AL, Marmamula S, Keeffe JE. Agreement and diagnostic accuracy of vision screening in preschool children between vision technicians and spot vision screener. Indian journal of ophthalmology. Jan 2021;69(1):117-121. doi:10.4103/ijo.IJO_1740_19

29.       D’Souza H, Kun A, Martinson S, Bejarano L, McCole S. The positive predictive value of photoscreening devices for amblyogenic conditions. J AAPOS. 2021;25(6):P342.E1-342.E4. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaapos.2021.06.008

30.       Kennedy R, Thomas D. Evaluation of the iScreen digital screening system for amblyogenic factors. Can J Ophthalmol. 2000;35(5):258-262.

31.       Kovtoun TA, Arnold RW. Calibration of photoscreeners for threshold contact- induced hyperopic anisometropia: Introduction of the JVC photoscreeners. JPOS. May-Jun 2004;41(3):150-158.

32.       Angi MR, Bergamo L, Bisantis C. The binocular videorefractoscope for visual screening in infancy. Ger J Ophthalmol. May 1993;2(3):182-8.

33.       Angi MR, Pucci V, Forattini F, Formentin PA. Results of photorefractometric screening for amblyogenic defects in children aged 20 months. Behav Brain Res. Jul 31 1992;49(1):91-7.

34.       Arnold R, Angi M. Multifaceted amblyopia screening with blinq, 2WIN and PDI Check. Clin Ophthalmol. 2022;16:411-421. doi:10.2147/OPTH.S349638

35.       Liu Z, Pazo E, Ye H, Xu L, He W. Comparing School-Aged Refraction Measurements Using the 2WIN-S Portable Refractor in Relation to Cycloplegic Retinoscopy: A Cross-Sectional Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2021;2021:8. doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6612476

36.       Arnold SL, Arnold AW, Sprano JH, Arnold RW. Performance of the 2WIN photoscreener with “CR” strabismus estimation in high risk patients. Am J Ophthalmol. 1/1/2019 2019;207:195-203. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2019.04.016

37.       Arnold RW. Comparative AAPOS validation of the blinq birefringent amblyopia screener with isolated small-angle strabismus. Clin Ophthalmol. 2020;14:325-329.

38.       Martin SJ, Htoo HE, Hser N, Arnold RW. Performance of two photoscreeners enhanced by protective containers. Clin Ophthalmol. 5/25/2020 2020;14:1427-1435. doi:https://doi.org/10.2147/OPTH.S251451

39.       Arnold RW, Arnold AW, Hunt-Smith TT, Grendahl RL, Winkle RK. The Positive Predictive Value of Smartphone Photoscreening in Pediatric Practices. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. Aug 29 2018;55(6):393-6. doi:10.3928/01913913-20180710-01

40.       Law MX, Pimentel MF, Oldenburg CE, de Alba Campomanes AG. Positive predictive value and screening performance of GoCheck Kids in a primary care university clinic. J AAPOS. Jan 12 2020;(1):17.e1-5. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2019.11.006

41.       Arnold RW, O'Neil JW, Cooper KL, Silbert DI, Donahue SP. Evaluation of a smartphone photoscreener app to detect refractive amblyopia risk factors in children 1-6 years. Clin Ophthalmol. 8/2018 2018;12:1533-1537.

42.       Walker M, Duvall A, Daniels M, et al. Effectiveness of the iPhone GoCheck Kids smartphone vision screener in detecting amblyopia risk factors. J AAPOS. Feb 2020;24(1):16 e1-16 e5. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2019.10.007

43.       Levitt AH, Martin SJ, Arnold RW. Performance of glow-fixation GCK and 2WIN photoscreeners and Retinomax to uncover hyperopia. Clin Ophthalmol. 2020;14:2237-2244. doi:https://doi.org/10.2147/OPTH.S256991

44.       Silbert DI, Arnold RW. Do we need to directly detect astigmatism when photoscreening for amblyopia risk factors (ARFs)? 244. 2015;19(4):e61.

45.       Srivastava RM, Verma S, Gupta S, Kaur A, Awashti S, Agrawal S. Reliabvility of Smart Phone Photographs for School Eye Screening: A Pilot Study. Children. 10/4/2022 2022;9:1519-1530. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/children9101519

46.       Forcina BD, Peterseim MM, Wilson ME, et al. Performance of the Spot Vision Screener in Children Younger Than 3 Years of Age. Am J Ophthalmol. Jun 2017;178:79-83. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2017.03.014

47.       Feldman S, Peterseim MMW, Trivedi RH, Edward Wilson M, Cheeseman EW, Papa CE. Detecting High Hyperopia: The Plus Lens Test and the Spot Vision Screener. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. May 01 2017;54(3):163-167. doi:10.3928/01913913-20161013-05

48.       de Jesus DL, Villela FF, Orlandin LF, Eiji FN, Dantas DO, Alves MR. Comparison between refraction measured by Spot Vision Screening and subjective clinical refractometry. Clinics (Sao Paulo). Feb 2016;71(2):69-72. doi:10.6061/clinics/2016(02)03

49.       Ransbarger KM, Dunbar JA, Choi SE, Khazaeni LM. Results of a community vision-screening program using the Spot photoscreener. J AAPOS. Oct 2013;17(5):516-20. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2013.06.013

50.       Kapoor V, Shah SP, Beckman T, Gole G. Community based vision screening’ performance of the Spot Vision Screener and optotype testing. Ophthal Epidemiology. 2021;28(4):pending. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/09286586.2021.1962918

51.       Sigronde L, Blanc J, Aho S, Pallot C, Bron AM, Creuzot-Garcher C. Evaluation of the Spot Vision Screener in comparison with the orthoptic examination in visual screening in 3-5 year-old schoolchildren. J Fr Ophtalmol. May 2020;43(5):411-416. doi:10.1016/j.jfo.2019.10.006

52.       Harada S, Nakashima Y, Uematsu M, et al. Effectiveness of a photoscreener in identifying undiagnosed unilateral amblyopia at vision screening of 3-year-old children in Japan. Jpn J Ophthalmol. Jan 19 2022;doi:10.1007/s10384-021-00896-8

53.       Murali K, Krishna V, Krishna V, et al. Effectiveness of Kanna photoscreener in detecting amblyopia risk factors. Indian journal of ophthalmology. Aug 2021;69(8):2045-2049. doi:10.4103/ijo.IJO_2912_20

54.       Qian X, Li Y, Ding G, et al. Compared performance of Spot and SW800 photoscreeners on Chinese children. Br J Ophthalmol. Apr 2019;103(4):517-522. doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2018-311885

55.       Gramatikov BI. Detecting central fixation by means of artificial neural networks in a pediatric vision screener using retinal birefringence scanning. Biomed Eng Online. Apr 27 2017;16(1):52. doi:10.1186/s12938-017-0339-6

56.       Jost RM, Yanni SE, Beauchamp CL, et al. Beyond Screening for Risk Factors: Objective Detection of Strabismus and Amblyopia. JAMA ophthalmology. May 29 2014;132(7):814-820. doi:10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2014.424

57.       Hunter DG, Piskun NV, Guyton DL, Gramatikov BI, Nassif DS. Clinical performance of the Pediatric Vision Screener. J AAPOS. 2004;8(1):107 (abstract).

58.       Hunter DG, Shah AS, Sau S, Nassif D, Guyton DL. Automated detection of ocular alignment with binocular retinal birefringence scanning. Appl Opt. Jun 1 2003;42(16):3047-53.

59.       Bosque LE, Yamarino CR, Salcedo N, et al. Evaluation of the blinq vision scanner for detection of amblyopia and strabismus. J AAPOS. Jul 9 2021;25(4):214 e1-214 e7. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2021.02.011

60.       Shah S, S., Jimenez JJ, Rozema E, Nguyen MK, Fong DS, Mehta AM. Validation of the Pediatric Vision Scanner in a Normal Preschool Population. Poster presented at: American Academy of Ophthalmology; October 12, 2019 2019; San Francisco, CA. Session Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabism,us. San Francisco

61.       Shah SS, Jimenez JJ, Rozema EJ, Nguyen MT, Preciado M, Mehta AM. Validation of the Pediatric Vision Scanner in a normal preschool population. J AAPOS. Aug 2021;25(4):216 e1-216 e4. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2021.03.010

62.       Kinori M, Molina I, Hernandez EO, et al. The PlusoptiX Photoscreener and the Retinomax Autorefractor as Community-based Screening Devices for Preschool Children. Curr Eye Res. Feb 9 2018:1-5. doi:10.1080/02713683.2018.1437453

63.       Fledelius HC, Bangsgaard R, Slidsborg C, laCour M. The usefulness of the Retinomax autorefractor for childhood screening validated against a Danish preterm cohort examined at the age of 4 years. Eye (Lond). Mar 20 2015;doi:10.1038/eye.2015.14

64.       Cordonnier M, Kallay O. Non-cycloplegic screening for refractive errors in children with the hand-held autorefractor Retinomax: final results and comparison with non-cycloplegic photoscreening. Strabismus. 2001;9(2):59-70.

65.       Margines JB, Huang C, Young A, et al. Refractive Errors and Amblyopia Among Children Screened by the UCLA Preschool Vision Program in Los Angeles County. Am J Ophthalmol. Feb 2020;210:78-85. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2019.10.013

66.       VIPS. Comparison of preschool vision screening tests as administered by licensed eye care professionals in the vision in preschoolers study. Ophthalmology. Apr 2004;111(4):637-650.

67.       Arnold RW, Davis B, Arnold LE, Rowe KS, Davis JM. Calibration and validation of 9 objective vision screeners with contact-lens induced anisometropia. Web Page Article. ABCD. Accessed 9/5/2012, 2012. http://www.abcd-vision.org/references/Calibrate-9/Calbrate-9.htm

68.       Wang D, Jin N, Pei RX, et al. Comparison between two autorefractor performances in large scale vision screening in Chinese school age children. Int J Ophthalmol. 2020;13(10):1660-1666. doi:10.18240/ijo.2020.10.22

69.       VIPS, Dobson V, Quinn G, et al. Preschool vision screening tests administered by nurse screeners compared with lay screeners in the Vision in Preschoolers Study. IOVS. 2005 2005;46:2639-2648.

70.       Lang D, Leman R, Arnold AW, Arnold RW. Validated portable pediatric vision screening in the Alaska Bush. A VIPS-like study in the Koyukon. Alaska Med. Jan-Mar 2007;49(1):2-15.

71.       Ottar WL, Scott WE, Holgado SI. Photoscreening for amblyogenic factors. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1995;32:289-295.

72.       Longmuir SQ, Boese EA, Pfeifer W, Zimmerman B, Short L, Scott WE. Practical community photoscreening in very young children. Multicenter Study. Pediatrics. Mar 2013;131(3):e764-9. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-1638

73.       Leman RE, Clausen MM, Bates J, Stark L, Arnold KK, Arnold RW. A comparison of patched HOTV visual acuity and photoscreening. J Sch Nurs. August 2006 2006;22(4):237-243.

74.       Arnold RW, Donahue SP. The yield and challenges of charitable state-wide photoscreening. Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. 2006;21(2):93-100.

75.       Salcido AA, Bradley J, Donahue SP. Predictive value of photoscreening and traditional screening of preschool children. J Aapos. Apr 2005;9(2):114-20.

76.       Arnold RW, Armitage MD, Gionet EG, et al. The cost and yield of photoscreening: impact of photoscreening on overall pediatric ophthalmic costs. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. Mar-Apr 2005;42(2):103-11.

77.       Arnold RW. Pseudo-false positive eye/vision photoscreening due to accommodative insufficiency. A serendipitous benefit for poor readers? Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. 2004;19(2):75-80.

78.       Salcido AA, Johnson T, Bradley J, Donahue SP. Predictive value of photoscreening and traditional screening of preschool children. AAPOS; 2003:

79.       Enzenauer RW. The efficacy of photoscreening for amblyopiagenic factors in a high risk population. Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. Winter 2003;18(4):233-40.

80.       Arnold RW. Highly specific photoscreening at the Alaska State Fair: Valid Alaska Blind Child Discovery photoscreening and interpretation. Alaska Med. April/May/June 2003 2003;45(2):34-40.

81.       Donahue SP, Johnson TM, Ottar W, Scott WE. Sensitivity of photoscreening to detect high-magnitude amblyogenic factors. J AAPOS. 2002;6(2):86-91.

82.       Miller JM, Schwiegerling J, Leising-Hall H, Surachatkumtonekul T. Detection of improper fixation in MTI photoscreening images. J AAPOS. Feb 2001;5(1):35-43. doi:10.1067/mpa.2001.111012

83.       Tong PY, Macke JP, Bassin RE, et al. Screening for amblyopia in preverbal children with photoscreening photographs. III. improved grading criteria for hyperopia. Ophthalmology. 2000;107(9):1630-6.

84.       Donahue SP, Johnson TM, Leonard-Martin TC. Screening for amblyogenic factors using a volunteer lay network and the MTI photoscreener. Initial results from 15,000 preschool children in a statewide effort. Ophthalmology. 2000;107(9):1637-44; discussion 1645-6.

85.       Arnold RW, Gionet E, Jastrzebski A, Kovtoun T, Armitage M, Coon L. The Alaska Blind Child Discovery project: Rationale, Methods and Results of 4000 screenings. Alaska Med. 2000;42:58-72.

86.       Weinand F, Graf M, Demming K. Sensitivity of the MTI photoscreener for amblyogenic factors in infancy and early childhood. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. Nov 1998;236(11):801-5.

87.       Tong P, Enke-Miyazaki E, Bassin R, et al. Screening for amblyopia in preverbal children with photoscreening photographs. Ophthalmol. 1998;105(5):856-863.

88.       Lewis R, Marsh-Tootle W. *The reliability of interpretation of photoscreening results with the MTI PS-100 in Headstart preschool children. J Am Optom Assoc. 1995;66(7):429-434.

89.       Freedman H, Preston K. Polaroid photoscreening for amblyogenic factors.  An improved technology. Ophthalmol. 1992;99:1785-1795.

90.       Yanovitch T, Wallace DK, Freedman SF, et al. The accuracy of photoscreening at detecting treatable ocular conditions in children with Down syndrome. Clinical Trial

Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't

Validation Studies. J AAPOS. Dec 2010;14(6):472-7. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2010.09.016

91.       Granet D, Hoover A, Smith A, Brown S, Bartsch D-U, Brody B. A new objective digital computerized vision screening system. JPOS. 1999;36(5):251-256.

92.       Morgan KS, Kennemer JC. Off-axis photorefractive eye screening in children. J Cataract Refract Surg. 1997;23(3):423-8.

93.       Williams C, Harrad RA, Harvey I, Sparrow JM. Screening for amblyopia in preschool children: results of a population- based, randomised controlled trial. ALSPAC Study Team. Avon Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2001;8(5):279-95.

94.       Cyert L, Schmidt P, Maguire M, et al. Threshold visual acuity testing of preschool children using the crowded HOTV and Lea Symbols acuity tests. J AAPOS. Dec 2003;7(6):396-9. doi:10.1016/s1091-8531(03)00211-8

95.       Arnold RW, Clausen M, Ryan H, Leman RE, Armitage D. Predictive value of inexpensive digital eye and vision photoscreening: "PPV of ABCD". Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. 2007;22(3):148-52.

96.       Arnold RW, Arnold AW, Stark L, Arnold KK, Leman RE, Armitage MD. Amblyopia detection by camera (ADBC): Gateway to portable, inexpensive, vision screening. Alaska Med. September/October 2004 2004;46(3):63-72.

97.       Huang X, Lee SJ, Kim CZ, Choi SH. An automatic screening method for strabismus detection based on image processing. PLoS One. 2021;16(8):e0255643. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0255643

98.       Cheng W, Lynn MH, Pundlik S, Almeida C, Luo G, Houston K. A smartphone ocular alignment measurement app in school screening for strabismus. BMC Ophthalmol. Mar 25 2021;21(1):150. doi:10.1186/s12886-021-01902-w

99.       Raza SA, Amitava AK, Gupta Y, et al. Canon CP-TX1 camera - As a screening tool for amblyogenic risk factors. Indian journal of ophthalmology. Apr 2022;70(4):1313-1316. doi:10.4103/ijo.IJO_2161_21

100.     Khedekar A, Devarajan B, Ramasamy K, Muthukkaruppan V, Kim U. Smartphone-based application improves the detection of retinoblastoma. Eye (Lond). Jun 2019;33(6):896-901. doi:10.1038/s41433-018-0333-7

101.     Munson MC, Plewman DL, Baumer KM, et al. Autonomous early detection of eye disease in childhood photographs. Sci Adv. Oct 2019;5(10):eaax6363. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aax6363

102.     Vagge A, Wangtiraumnuay N, Pellegrini M, Scotto R, Iester M, Traverso CE. Evaluation of a Free Public Smartphone Application to Detect Leukocoria in High-Risk Children Aged 1 to 6 Years. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. Jul 1 2019;56(4):229-232. doi:10.3928/01913913-20190516-01

103.     Teed RG, Bui CM, Morrison DG, Estes RL, Donahue SP. Amblyopia therapy in children identified by photoscreening. Ophthalmology. Jan 2010;117(1):159-62. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.06.041

104.     Longmuir SQ, Pfeifer W, Leon A, Olson RJ, Short L, Scott WE. Nine-year results of a volunteer lay network photoscreening program of 147 809 children using a photoscreener in Iowa. Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't. Ophthalmology. Oct 2010;117(10):1869-75. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2010.03.036

105.     Kirk VG, Clausen MM, Armitage MD, Arnold RW. Preverbal photoscreening for amblyogenic factors and outcomes in amblyopia treatment: early objective screening and visual acuities. Arch Ophthalmol. Apr 2008;126(4):489-92. doi:126/4/489 [pii]

10.1001/archopht.126.4.489

106.     Donahue SP, Lorenz S, Johnson T. Photo screening around the world: Lions Club International Foundation experience. Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't. Semin Ophthalmol. Sep-Oct 2008;23(5):294-7. doi:10.1080/08820530802506078

107.     Vernacchio L, Trudell EK, McLaughlin SR, Bhambhani V. Effect of Instrument-Based Vision Screening for 3- to 5-Year-Old Children on Referrals to Eye Care Specialists. Clin Pediatr (Phila). Feb 19 2019:9922819832020. doi:10.1177/0009922819832020

108.     Oliveira I, Ferreira A, Vieira R, et al. The Impact of Early Photoscreening on Medium-term Visual Acuity: A Population-Based Study. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. May 25 2022:1-6. doi:10.3928/01913913-20220428-02

109.     Vila-de Muga M, Van Esso D, Alarcon S, et al. Instrument-based screening for amblyopia risk factors in a primary care setting in children aged 18 to 30 months. Eur J Pediatr. Jan 7 2021;doi:10.1007/s00431-020-03904-0

110.     Kavitha V, Heralgi MM, Rani JS. Commentary: Photo screeners: The present and future of preschool screening. Indian journal of ophthalmology. Mar 2021;69(3):776. doi:10.4103/ijo.IJO_1858_20

111.     Stiff H, Dimenstein N, Larson SA. Vision screening outcomes in children less than 3 years of age compared with children 3 years and older. J AAPOS. Oct 2020;24(5):293 e1-293 e4. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2020.05.016

112.     O’hara MA. Instrument-based pediatric vision screening. Current Opinion Ophthalmology. 2016;27(0):1-4. doi:DOI:10.1097/ICU.0000000000000289

113.     Kerr N, Arnold R. Vision screening for children: current trends, technology and legislative issues. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2004;15:454-459.

114.     Silverstein E, Donahue SP. Preschool Vision Screening: Where We Have Been and Where We Are Going. Am J Ophthalmol. Oct 2018;194:xviii-xxiii. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2018.07.022

115.     Instrument-Based Vision Screening in Children. Pediatrics. Jan 2017;139(1)doi:10.1542/peds.2016-3444

116.     Sanchez I, Ortiz-Toquero S, Martin R, de Juan V. Advantages, limitations, and diagnostic accuracy of photoscreeners in early detection of amblyopia: a review. Clin Ophthalmol. 2016;10:1365-73. doi:10.2147/OPTH.S93714

117.     Simons K. Photoscreening [editorial]. Ophthalmology. 2000;107(9):1619-20.

118.     Hartmann EE, Dobson V, Hainline L, Marsh-Tootle W, Quinn GE, Ruttum MS. Summary Statement. In: Hartmann EE, ed. Vision Screening in the Preschool Child. National Maternal and Child Health Clearinghouse; 1998:3-15.

119.     Hamer R, Norcia A, Day S. Comparison of on- and off-axis photorefraction with cycloplegic retinoscopy in infants. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1992;29:232-239.

120.     Grossman DC, Curry SJ, Owens DK, et al. Vision Screening in Children Aged 6 Months to 5 Years: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. Sep 05 2017;318(9):836-844. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.11260

121.     Ferreira A, Vieira R, Maia S, Miranda V, Parreira R, Meneres P. Photoscreening for amblyopia risk factors assessment in young children: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Eur J Ophthalmol. May 6 2022:11206721221099777. doi:10.1177/11206721221099777

122.     Sopeyin A, Young BK, Howard MA. 2020 Evaluation of Portable Vision Screening Instruments. Yale J Biol Med. Mar 2021;94(1):107-114.

123.     Donahue SP, Arthur B, Neely DE, Arnold RW, Silbert D, Ruben JB. Guidelines for automated preschool vision screening: A 10-year, evidence-based update. J AAPOS. Feb 2013;17(1):4-8. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2012.09.012

124.     Donahue S, Arnold R, Ruben JB. Preschool vision screening: What should we be detecting and how should we report it?  Uniform guidelines for reporting results from studies of preschool vision screening. J AAPOS. 2003;7(5):314-316.

125.     Pascual M, Huang J, Maguire MG, et al. Risk factors for amblyopia in the vision in preschoolers study. Ophthalmology. Mar 2014;121(3):622-9 e1. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2013.08.040

126.     Cotter SA, Donahue SP, Moore B. Position Statement on the Relationship between Visual Acuity and Refractive Error in the Context of Preschool Vision Screening Using Instrument-based Technology. Optom Vis Sci. Jan 1 2021;98(1):102. doi:10.1097/01.opx.0000725792.80874.83

127.     Arnold RW, Donahue SP, Silbert DI, et al. Uniform guidelines for pediatric vision screen validation 2021. J AAPOS. 2022;26(1):p1.e1-1.e6. doi:doi.org/10.1016/j.jaapos.2021.09.009

128.     Roorda A, Bobier WR, Campbell MC. An infrared eccentric photo-optometer. Vision Res. Jun 1998;38(13):1913-24.

129.     Roorda A, Campbell MC, Bobier WR. Slope-based eccentric photorefraction: theoretical analysis of different light source configurations and effects of ocular aberrations. J Opt Soc Am A. Oct 1997;14(10):2547-56.

130.     Roorda A, Campbell MC, Bobier WR. Geometrical theory to predict eccentric photorefraction intensity profiles in the human eye. J Opt Soc Am A. Aug 1995;12(8):1647-56.

131.     Campbell MC, Bobier WR, Roorda A. Effect of monochromatic aberrations on photorefractive patterns. J Opt Soc Am A. Aug 1995;12(8):1637-46.

132.     Bobier W. *Quantitative photorefraction using an off-center flash source. Am J Optom Physiol Opt. 1988;65:962-71.

133.     Bobier WR, Braddick OJ. Eccentric photorefraction: optical analysis and empirical measures. Am J Optom Physiol Opt. Sep 1985;62(9):614-20.

134.     Kaakinen K. Simultaneous two flash static photoskiascopy. A simple method for screening of children with strabismus or high refractive errors by simultaneous static photographic skiascopy of the horizontal and vertical meridian of both eyes and the documentation of the corneal and fundus reflexes in one photograph. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). Jun 1981;59(3):378-86.

135.     Molteno AC, Hoare-Nairne J, Parr JC, et al. The Otago photoscreener, a method for the mass screening of infants to detect squint and refractive errors. Trans Ophthalmol Soc N Z. 1983;35:43-9.

136.     Maslin K, Hope C. Photoscreening to detect potential amblyopia. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol. Aug 1990;18(3):313-8. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9071.1990.tb00626.x